COPYRIGHT
“Copyrighting" redirects here. For the use of words to promote or
advertise something, see Copywriting.
"Copyrights" redirects here. For Wikipedia policy about copyright
issues, see Wikipedia:Copyrights.
A copyright is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to the creator
of an original work or their assignee for a limited period of time upon
disclosure of the work. This includes the right to copy, distribute and adapt
the work. In most jurisdictions copyright arises upon fixation and does not
need to be registered. Copyright owners have the exclusive statutory right to
exercise control over copying and other exploitation of the works for a
specific period of time, after which the work is said to enter the public
domain. Uses covered under limitations and exceptions to copyright, such asfair
use, do not require permission from the copyright owner. All other uses require
permission. Copyright owners can license or permanently transfer or assign their
exclusive rights to others.
Initially copyright law applied to only the copying of books. Over time
other uses such as translations and derivative works were made subject to
copyright. Copyright now covers a wide range of works, including maps, sheet
music, dramatic works, paintings, photographs, architectural drawings,sound
recordings, motion pictures and computer programs. The British Statute of Anne
1709, full title "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the
Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the
Times therein mentioned", was the first copyright statute.
Today copyright laws are partially standardized through international and
regional agreements such as the Berne Convention and the WIPO Copyright Treaty.
Although there are consistencies among nations' copyright laws, each
jurisdiction has separate and distinct laws and regulations covering copyright.
National copyright laws on licensing, transfer and assignment of copyright
still vary greatly between countries and copyrighted works are licensed on a
territorial basis. Some jurisdictions also recognize moral rights of creators,
such as the right to be credited for the work.
Historically copyright laws required compliance with formalities prior to the
copyright monopoly being granted. The UK’s statute of Anne 1709 required
registration of the work with the Stationers' Company. Non-compliance with
these formalities mean the copyright could not be enforced in front of the
courts. Early versions of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary
and Artistic Works allowed signatories to make copyright conditional on
adherence to formalities, but formalities were eventually abolished in the
Berlin revision of the Convention in 1908. The Berne Convention now provides in
Article 5(2) that "the enjoyment and the exercise of [copyright] shall not
be subject to any formality". Registration and notice were central to the
copyright protection system in the US; the US therefore refused to sign the
Berne Convention and led efforts within the United Nations for the creation of
the Universal Copyright Convention. Under the Universal Copyright Convention
certain formalities for obtaining protection under copyright, such as copyright
notice and possibly registration, are required. The Berne Convention became the
dominant multilateral agreement on copyright in the late 1980s, with the US
becoming the 79th signatory in 1988. By early 2009 the Berne Convention had 164
signatories, and countries which are members of the Berne Convention do not
require registration or notice to obtain copyright. While copyright does not
depend on procedures and arises when the work is created in tangible form, some
Berne Convention members allow registration of works, for example to ease
identification of protected works, and in certain countries registration may
serve as prima facie evidence in copyright disputes.
Prior to the Berne Convention Implementation Act on March 1 1989, all
published works in the US had to contain a copyright notice, the © symbol (or
one of the words “Copyright” or “Copr.”) followed by the publication date and
copyright owner's name, to be protected by copyright. The use of a copyright
notice is now optional in the US and may be used in order to ensure copyright
protection of older works and in those countries which require the presence of
the notice.Furthermore the affixing of a copyright notice on a work disallows
the defence ofinnocent infringement in the US. While registration of a work is
no longer required to obtain copyright, the US requires registration for
infringement actions. Statutory damages and attorney’s fees can only be claimed
in infringement procedures relating to registered works.
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions. The
length of the term can depend on several factors, including the type of work
(e.g. musical composition or novel), whether the work has been published or
not, and whether the work was created by an individual or a corporation. In
most of the world, the default length of copyright is the life of the author
plus either 50 or 70 years. In the United States, the term for most existing
works is for a term ending 70 years after the death of the author. If the work
was a work for hire (e.g., those created by a corporation) then copyright
persists for 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication, whichever
is shorter. In some countries (for example, the United States and the United Kingdom),
copyrights expire at the end of the calendar year in question.
The length and requirements for copyright duration are subject to change by
legislation, and since the early 20th century there have been a number of
adjustments made in various countries, which can make determining the duration
of a given copyright somewhat difficult. For example, the United States used to
require copyrights to be renewed after 28 years to stay in force, and formerly
required a copyright notice upon first publication to gain coverage. In Italy
and France, there were post-wartime extensions that could increase the term by
approximately 6 years in Italy and up to about 14 in France.
COPYLEFT
Copyleft is a play on the word copyright to describe the practice of using
copyright law to offer the right to distribute copies and modified versions of
a work and requiring that the same rights be preserved in modified versions of
the work. In other words, copyleft is a general method for making a program (or
other work) free (libre), and requiring all modified and extended versions of
the program to be free as well.
Copyleft is a form of licensing and can be used to maintain copyright
conditions for works such as computer software, documents and art. In general,
copyright law is used by an author to prohibit others from reproducing,
adapting, or distributing copies of the author's work. In contrast, under
copyleft, an author may give every person who receives a copy of a work
permission to reproduce, adapt or distribute it and require that any resulting
copies or adaptations are also bound by the same licensing agreement.
Copyleft licenses require that information necessary for reproducing and
modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the executable. The
source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms and
acknowledge the author(s).
Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a
work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally
written by Richard Stallman, was the first copyleft license to see extensive
use, and continues to dominate the licensing of copylefted software. Creative
Commons, a non-profit organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a
similar license called ShareAlike.
◦ Security software
Malwares
Malware, short for malicious software, consists of programming (code,
scripts, active content, and other software) designed to disrupt or
deny operation, gather information that leads to loss of privacy or
exploitation, gain unauthorized access to system resources, and other
abusive behavior. The expression is a general term used by computer
professionals to mean a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive, or
annoying software or program code.
User Interfaces
The user interface is how the computer's operating system presents
information to the user and the user gives instructions (commands) to
the computer.
There are two kinds of User Interfaces
1. Text Interface
Presents information to the user in the form of text.
Have to type in commands or select commands from a menu displayed as text on the screen.
Hard to use or learn, because the user must memorize and type in commands.
Examples:
MS-Dos (MicroSoft Disk Operating System)
ProDos (Professional Disk Operating System)
Many of the Text Interfaces had shells placed over them.
A shell was more of a Graphic User Interface.
Made using the Text Interface easier to use.
2. Graphic User Interface (GUI)
Presents information to the use in the form of pull-down menus and icons.
Pull-down menus the user clicks on to display the menu
Icons are small pictures that stand for something, like a file, volume, trash, or program
The user gives commands to the computer by selecting items from a menu or by clicking on an icon when using a pointing device.
GUIs are easy to learn and use
Examples:
Windows 98
Windows 2000
MacOS
Four categories of application Software
1. Business software
- is application software that assists people in
becoming more effective and efficient while performing their daily business
activity.
2. Graphics and Multimedia
-this software includes computer-aided design,
desktop publishing, paint/image editing, photo editing, video and audio
editing, multimedia authoring, and Web page authoring.
3. Home/Personal/Educational
- A large amount of application software is designed
specifically for home, personal and educational use.
4. Communications
- One of the main reason people use computer is to
communicate and share information with other.
Software Forms (availability)
1. Public Domain Software
◦ Has no copyright - no one owns the right to control who can make copies of the software.
◦ Free to use or make copies of.
◦ Can be copied, used in other programs, or changed by anyone.
◦ 2. Freeware
◦ Has a copyright - someone owns the right to determine who can make copies of the software.
◦ Free to use and make copies of.
◦ Can only give away exact copies of the software.
◦ Can not be changed or used in another program without the copyright holder's permission.
◦ 3. Shareware
◦ Has a copyright.
◦ Allowed to use the software before paying for it.
◦ Can be a demo - which limits some major features like the Save command.
◦ Can set an amount of time you can use the software.
◦ Can trust that you will pay for it if you like the software.
◦ Can only give away exact copies of the software.
◦ Can not be changed or used in another program without the copyright holder's permission.
◦ 4. Commercial Software
◦ Has the most resistive copyright.
◦ Have to buy the software before you can use it.
◦ Can usually make one copy of the software as a backup copy.
◦ A backup copy is used in case something goes wrong with the original software.
◦ Can not give away or sell the backup copy.
◦ Can not copy, look at the program's code, change, or use the
software in another program without the copyright holder's permission.
◦ Commercial Software is the best software in the world.
5. Packaged software
-is mass-produced, copyrighted retail software that meets the needs of a wide variety of users.
6. Custom software-
-perform functions specific to a business or industry.
7. Web Application software-
Is a Web site that allows users to access and interact with software
from any computer or device that is connected to the internet.
8. Open Source Software
Is a software provided for use, modification, and redistribution.
Pervasive Themes
User centeredness and advocacy
Information assurance and security
IT systems model
Management of Complexity
Information and Communication Technologies
Human-Computer Interaction
Information Management
Networking
Platform Technologies
Programming
Web Systems and Technologies
Adaptability
Professionalism
Interpersonal Skills
Data versus Information
User Centeredness and Advocacy
IT graduates do not design and integrate IT-based solutions for their
own sake; rather, they design and integrate IT-based solution to help
users and/or organizations achieve their objectives. An integrated
IT-based solution includes both technological elements, such as
hardware, networking, software and data, as well as people and
processes. In order to be successful, IT graduates must therefore
develop a mind-set that does not allow losing focus on the importance of
users and organizations. They must therefore develop a user-centered
approach to technology (HCI, human factors, ergonomics, cognitive
psychology, etc.), an awareness of the activities and processes that the
solution is expected to support, as well as a realization that
solutions to problems that have arisen are not always purely
technological. Many user and organizational issues can be resolved
through other than purely technological solutions, be they additional
training or process redesign. (Chumer, 2002)
Information Assurance and Security
IT applications and the data and information stored in such
applications are some of the most important assets that an organization
possesses. It is crucial that such assets be protected, and security
must therefore be a central consideration in any attempt to select,
create, integrate, deploy and administer IT systems. While security
considerations are important to any computing professional, they become
even more important for IT graduates. Security breaches typically occur
where different components of a system interface, be it in the interface
between different computers in a networked application, or across the
interface between the user and the other components of the system. Since
IT professionals typically integrate different, often pre-existing
components, a lot of their professional activity takes place at such
interfaces, and a constant awareness of the possibility of security
breaches will therefore enable them to design IT-based solutions that
are less likely to put the organization’s assets at risk.
IT Systems Model
The ability to manage complexity through:
abstraction & modeling, best practices, patterns, standards, and the use of
appropriate tools. IT-based solutions are typically designed to address
problems or opportunities that arise in a complex environment. Moreover, the
integration of an IT-based solution itself often makes an already complex
environment even more complicated. IT graduates must be able to handle such
complex situations and to focus on those aspects of the situation that are most
relevant to the user and wider context in which the user is expected to
function. The most appropriate conceptual tool to deal with complexity is
abstraction, and IT graduates therefore must develop the ability to use
abstraction to form a model of the situation in which the need for an IT-based
solution arises and in which the IT-based solution has to be integrated.
Information and Communication Technologies
A deep understanding of information and
communication technologies and their associated tools. IT graduates must have
the skills and knowledge to use the technology appropriately. This requires a
deep technical expertise in the core information technologies, including
programming, web, information management, computer hardware and networking, and
HCI. However, IT graduates must also realize that very few IT-based solutions
are designed and built from scratch. IT-based solutions are typically
constructed from pre-designed components, including legacy applications that
the organizations already have in place. IT graduates must therefore be able to
use their technical expertise to integrate existing and new technologies.
Human Computer Interaction
A key component to the discipline of Information
Technology is the understanding and the advocacy of the user in the development
of IT applications and systems. This course develops a mind-set that recognizes
the importance of users and organizational contexts.
Information Management
Information derived from data is important to the
management, productivity and differentiation of an organization. Data must be
efficiently collected, organized, retrieved and managed to make it meaningful
to the organization. It is the role of the IT professional to develop, deploy,
manage and integrate data and information systems to support the organization.
This knowledge includes the collection, organization, modeling, transformation,
presentation, safety and security of the data and information.
Networking
It is the role of the IT professional to select, design,
deploy, integrate, and administer network and communication infrastructures in
an organization. This knowledge area includes data communications,
telecommunications, internetworking, and infrastructure security. It also
includes application of networking to multimedia, information storage and
distribution, and the World Wide Web.
Platform Technologies
Organizations typically use many
disparate technologies that need to communicate and work with each other. A key
component to the discipline of Information Technology is the integration of
applications and systems. This knowledge area examines the various types of
programming languages and their appropriate use of scripting languages,
architectures, application programming interfaces and programming practices to
facilitate the management, integration and security of the systems that support
the organization.
Adaptability
IT graduates must be extremely
adaptable. The need for adaptability arises partly because of the rapid change
in the technology itself. Many of the technologies that are covered in a
baccalaureate program are likely to be outdated shortly after graduation. IT
graduates must therefore develop life-long learning habits. On the other hand,
very few organizations can afford to replace all their technologies wholesale
on a regular basis. Many IT applications therefore consist of a hodgepodge of
legacy, current and emerging technologies, and the successful IT graduate must
be willing not only to become familiar with emerging technologies, but also, if
required, with legacy technologies.
Professionalism
IT professionals will be involved
at all levels in organizations, and must exhibit the highest levels of
professionalism. This pervasive theme includes the sub-themes of life-long
learning, professional development, ethics, and responsibility; together with
Interpersonal skills these pervasive themes define the face of an IT
professional that the organization and general public sees first.
Platform Technologies
Organizations typically use many
disparate technologies that need to communicate and work with each other. A key
component to the discipline of Information Technology is the integration of
applications and systems. This knowledge area examines the various types of
programming languages and their appropriate use of scripting languages,
architectures, application programming interfaces and programming practices to
facilitate the management, integration and security of the systems that support
the organization.
Adaptability
IT graduates must be extremely
adaptable. The need for adaptability arises partly because of the rapid change
in the technology itself. Many of the technologies that are covered in a
baccalaureate program are likely to be outdated shortly after graduation. IT
graduates must therefore develop life-long learning habits. On the other hand,
very few organizations can afford to replace all their technologies wholesale
on a regular basis. Many IT applications therefore consist of a hodgepodge of
legacy, current and emerging technologies, and the successful IT graduate must
be willing not only to become familiar with emerging technologies, but also, if
required, with legacy technologies.
Professionalism
IT professionals will be involved
at all levels in organizations, and must exhibit the highest levels of
professionalism. This pervasive theme includes the sub-themes of life-long
learning, professional development, ethics, and responsibility; together with
Interpersonal skills these pervasive themes define the face of an IT
professional that the organization and general public sees first.